The Challenges of Rural-Urban Migration In Developing Countries
Abstract
Migration is the movement of people from one geographical location to another, involving permanent or temporary settlement. One noticeable aspect in the society today is the rate at which people migrate from rural to the centres. While urban centres are increasing in population, rural areas are decreasing in population. For these reasons, there is a widespread concern that the rates of rural-urban migration should be slowed. But more importantly to policy makers is that urban unemployment and high rates of urbanization pose strong social and political challenges for reducing the flow of migrants to urban areas. This paper discusses the challenges that face rural-urban migration. It analyzes migration theories that provide theoretical reasoning behind rural-urban migration. This paper draws from the empirical literature review of studies on rural-urban migration through collection of secondary data and reviewing information that has been gathered from various studies and reports in research and academic institutions, as well as from internet sources in and outside Tanzania.
References
Alam, K., M. Herson & I. O’Donnel. 2008. Flood Disasters: Learning From Precious Belief and Recovery Operations. Prevention Consortiuym And ALNAP.
Amin, S., 1974. Accumulation on a World Scale: A Critique of the Theory of Underdevelopment. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Bairoch, P. 1973. Urban Unemployment in Developing Countries: The Nature of the Problem and Proposals for Its Solution. Geneva: International Labour Office.
—. 1997. Political Violence and the Uprooted in the Horn of Africa: A Study of Refugee Flows from Ethiopia. Journal of Black Studies, 28(1): 26-42.
Bariagaber, A. 1999. States, International Organizations and the Refugee: Reflections on the Complexity of Managing the Refugee Crisis in the Horn of Africa. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 37(4): 597-619.
—. 2006. Conflict and the Refugee Experience: Flight, Exile and Repatriation in the Horn of Africa. United Kingdom: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
BBC News. 2009. Profile: Ethiopian Leader Meles Zenawi. Retrieved 12 November 2009 From BBC Website Http: //News.Bbc.Co.Uk/2/Hi/Africa/4545711.Stm#Map
Berhanu, B. & M. White. 2000. War, Famine and Female Migration in Ethiopia, 1960-1989. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 49(1): 91-113.
Berry, S. 1983. Work Migration and Class in Western Nigeria. In F. Cooper (ed.), Struggle for the City: Migrant Labour, Capital and the State in Urban Africa. London: Sage Publications.
Bhaskar, R. 1993. Reclaiming Reality: A Critical Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy. London: Verso Press.
Bilsborrow, R. 1987. The Impact of Origin Community Characteristics on Rural – Urban Out-migration in a Developing Country. Demography, 24:191-210.
Bilsborrow, R. E. & P. Delargy. 1991. Land Use, Migration and Natural Resource Deterioration: The Experience of Guatemala and the Sudan. Population Development Review, 16: 125-147.
Böök, M. 1987. Effects on Finnish Development Cooperation on Tanzanian Women. Urban Women in Tanzania. Institute Of Development Studies, University Of Helsinki. Helsinki.
Byass, P., Berhane, Y., Emmelin, A. & Wall, S. (2003). Patterns of Local Migration and Their Consequences in a Rural Ethiopian Population. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 31: 58-62.
Chambers, R. 1979. Rural Development: Whose Knowledge Counts. IDS Bulletin, Vol. 10, No. 2: 1-3.
Cohen, B. (2006). Urbanization in Developing Countries: Current Trends, Future Prospects, and Key Challenges for Sustainability. Technology in Society, 28: 63-80.
Cohen, J. E., 2003. Human Population: The Next Half Century. Science, 302: 1172-1175. Doi: 10: 1126/Science.1088665.
Commission on Population & Development. 2013. New Trends in Migration: Linking Population, Poverty and Development, 46th Session, 22-26 April 2013
Darkoh, M.B.K. 1982. Population Expansion and Desertification in Tanzania. Desertification Control, (6): 26-33.
De Waal, A. 1991. Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia. Human Rights Watch.
Egero, B. 1987. Mozambique: A Dream Undone. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
Elkan, W. 1960. Migrants and Proletarians: Urban Labour in the Economic Development of Uganda. London: Oxford University Press.
Ellison, P. T. 2003. Energetics and Reproductive Effort. American Journal of Human Biology, 15: 342-351. Doi: 10.1002/ajhb.10152.
Eshetu, C. 1970. Urbanization and its Effect on the Rural Ethiopean Economy. Peace Corps Training Programme.
Ezra, M. 2001. Demographic Responses to Environmental Stress in the Drought - 39 and Famine-Prone Areas of Northern Ethiopia. International Journal of Population Geography, 7: 259-279.
—. 2001. Ecological Degradation, Rural Poverty, and Migration in Ethiopia: A Contextual Analysis. Policy Research Division Working Paper, 149. New York: Population Council.
Ezra, M. & G. E. Kiros. 2001. Rural Out-Migration in the Drought-Prone Areas of Ethiopia: A Multi-Level Analysis. International Migration Research, 35(3): 749-771.
Frank A. G. 1966. The Development of Underdevelopment. Monthly Review, September 1966.
—. 1969. Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Gibson, M. A., & Mace, R. 2006. An Energy-Saving Development Initiative Increases Birth Rate and Childhood Malnutrition in Rural. Ethiopia. PLoS Med, 3: 0476-0483. Doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030087.
Gurmu, E. 2005. Fertility Driven by Povery: The Case of Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). University of London.
Hagen-Zanker, J. 2008. Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature.
Harris, J. R. & M. P. Todaro. 1970. Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two-Sector Analysis. The American Economic Review, 60(1): 126-142.
Henderson, L.J. 2004. Emergency And Disaster: Pervasive Risk And Public Bureaucracy In Developing Nations. Public Organization Review: A Global Journal, 4: 50-75.
Holms, M. 1992. Survival Strategies of Migrants to Makambako – An Intermediate Town in Tanzania. In J. Baker & P. O. Pedersen (eds.). The Rural-Urban Interface in Africa. Uppsala: The Nordic Africa Institute.
Huq. S. K. S., H. Reid & D. Satterthwaitte. 2007. Editorial: Reducing Risks to Cities From Disasters and Climate Change. Environment and Urbanization, 19: 60-69.
Ibrahim, F. 1987. Ecology and Land Use Changes in the Semiarid Zone of The Sudan. In P. Little & M. Horowitz (eds.). Lands at Risk in the Third World Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 213-229.
Karlsson, I. 2008. Rural-Urban Migration in Babati District, Tanzania. Uppsala Universitet. Sweden.
Katuli, F. 2002. Impact of Gender Relations on HIV/AIDS: Case Study of Kinondoni Municipality. MA thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MA(DS) of the University of Dar es Salaam. September 2002.
—. 2004. Tanzania Maize Story. Paper Presented to the Vredeiseilanden Fund Raising Campaign, Luven: Belgium.
Knox, P. & L. Mccarthy. 2005. Urbanization. 2nd Edition. London: Pearson Education Ltd.
Kritz M. M, L. L. Lim, H. Zlotnik (eds.). 1992. International Migration System: A Global Approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Lawi, Y. Q. 2007. Tanzania’s Operation Vijiji and Local Ecological Consciousness: The Case of Eastern Iraqwland 1974-1976. Journal of African History, 48: 73-75.
Lee, E. 1969. Migration. Edited By, Jackson, J.A. Cambridge.
Lewis W. A. 1954. Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour. Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies, 22: 139-91.
Lindberg, C. 1996. Society And Environment Eroded. A Study of Household Poverty and Natural Resource Use in Two Tanzanian Villages. Geografiska Regionstudier, Nr 29. Kulturgeografiska Institutionen. Uppsala University. Sweden.
Little, P. 1987. Land Use Conflicts in the Agricultural/Pastoral Borderlands: The Case of Kenya. In P. Little & M. Horowitz (eds.). Lands at Risk in the Third World, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, pp. 191-212.
Liviga, A. J. & R. D. K. Mekacha. 1998. Youth Migration and Poverty Alleviation: A Case Study of Petty Traders (Wamachinga) in Dar es Salaam, Research Report No. 985, Dar es Salaam: REPOA.
Lonergan, S. 1998. The Role of Environmental Degradation in Population Displacement. Environmental Change And Security Project Report 4, 5-15.
Lucas, R.E. 2004. Life Earnings and Rural–Urban Migration. Journal of Political Economy, 112 (1): S29-S59.
Lugalla, J. 1995. Crisis, Urbanization and Urban Poverty in Tanzania. A Study of Urban Poverty and Survival Politics. Lanham: University Press of America.
Mabogunje A. L. 1970. Systems Approach to a Theory of Rural-Urban Migration. Geographical Analysis, 2: 1-18.
—. 1980. The Development Process: A Spatial Perspective. Hutchinson University Library for Africa. Anchor Brendon Ltd, Tiptree, Essex. Great Britain.
Mascarenhas, A. 1996. Aspects of Migration and Urbanization. In S. Ngware & J.M.L. Kironde. Urbanising Tanzania –Issues, Initiatives and Priorities. DUP: Dar es Salaam.
Massey, D. S. 1990. Social Structure, Household Strategies, and Cumulative Causation of Migration. Population Index, 56(1): 3–26.
Meillasoux, C. 1968. Urbanization in an African Community: Voluntary Organizations in Bamako. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Mjema, G. D. 1997. Youth Unemployment in Tanzania. Unpublished Report. University of Dar Es Salaam.
Mutton, C. 1973. Reluctant Farmers? A Study of Unemployment and Planned Rural Development in Uganda. Nairobi: East African Publishing House.
National Bureau of Statistics. 2013. Population and Housing Census: Population Distribution by Administration Areas, Ministry of Finance, Dar es Salaam & Zanzibar.
Ndembwike, J. 2006. Tanzania: The Land and Its People.. Dar es Salaam: New Africa Press.
Oderth, R. 2002. An Introduction to the Study of Human Migration: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Writers Club Press. USA.
Olorunfemi, F.B. 2008. Disaster Incidence and Management in Nigeria. Research Review, 24(2): 35-48.
Pedersen, D. (1995). Drought, Migration & Population Growth in the Sahel: The Case Study of Malian Gourma: 1990-1991. Population Studies, 49(1): 11-126.
Peters, G. & R. Larkin. 2005. Population Geography. Eight Edition. Dubuque. Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Piven, F. F. & R. A. Cloward. 1971. Regulating the Poor. New York: Random House.
Portes, A., J. Böröcz, 1987. Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation. International Migration Review, 23: 606-30.
Ranis, G. & Fei, J. C. H. 1961. A Theory of Economic Development. American Economic Review, 51.
Ravenste, E. G. 1889. The Laws of Migration. Journal of Royal Statistician Society. June. 241-301.
Rostow W. W. 1960. The Stages of Economic Growth. London: Cambridge University Press.
Sabot, R. 1979. Economic Development and Urban Migration, Tanzania 1900-1971. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press.
Satterthwaite, D., H. Saleemul, P. Mark, R. Hannah & R. Patricia. 2007. Adapting to Climate Change in Urban Areas: The Possibilities and Constraints in Low- and Middle-Income Nations, Human Settlements Discussion Paper Series.
Sessay, R. & Mohamed, F. 1997. Forced Migration, Environmental Change, And Wood Fuel Issues In The Senegal River Valley. Environmental Conservation 24(3), 251-260.
Shayo, R. 1996. Rapid Urbanisation in the 21st Century: Future Research Issues. In S. Ngware & J.M. Lusugga Kironde (eds.). Urbanising Tanzania – Issues, Initiatives and Priorities, DUP: University of Dar es Salaam.
Shillington, K. & F. Dearborn (eds.). 2005. Encyclopedia of African History. Volume 3. P-Z Index Tanzania (Tanganyika): Arusha Declaration). New York: Taylor and Francis Group, p. 1549-1550.
Sjaastad, L.A. 1962. The Costs and Returns of Human Migration. Journal of Political Economy, 70(5): 80-93.
Speare, A. G. & W. Frey. 1975. Residential Mobility, Migration and Metropolitan Change. Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing Company.
Taye, M. 1990. Urban-Rural Relations in Agrarian Challenge. In Pausewang (ed.). A Historical Overview in Ethiopia options for Rural Development, United Kingdom, Nilling and Sons Ltd.
Taylor, J. E. & P. L. Fletcher. 2007. Remittances and Development in Mexico Part One: The New Labor Economics of Migration: A Critical Review. In P.L. Fletcher, (ed.). Rural Mexico Research Review, Davis: University of California.
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.